Grammar mini-lessons for English

A.  A quick review of the basic parts of sentences and the eight parts of speech

  1.  Phrases vs. clauses

• A phrase is a group of words that may contain a subject or a verb, but not both.

                  into the woods

                  running down the street

• A clause is a group of words that has both a subject and a verb.  A clause that can stand alone is an independent clause:

                  I like ice cream.

      A clause that cannot stand alone is a dependent clause:

                  because it tastes good

  2.  Understanding the basic grammar of sentences

• subject:  what the sentence is about
• predicate:  says or asks something about the subject or tells the subject to do something

subject                                              predicate

I                                                     have a dream.

We                                                shall overcome.

California                                     is a state of mind.

Puff, the magic dragon,              lived by the sea.

Some sentences contain only a predicate, with an implied, or “understood,” subject: 

      Stop!

      Pass the peas, please.

Practice:  Highlight the subject in yellow and the predicate in green.

(from “A Hanging” by George Orwell)

  1.  One prisoner had been brought out of his cell.

  2.  We set out for the gallows.

  3.  He was an army doctor, with a gray toothbrush moustache and a gruff voice.

  4.  The rest of us, magistrates and the like, followed behind.

  5.  The dog answered the sound with a whine.

  6.  The hangman, a gray-haired convict in the white uniform of the prison, was waiting beside his machine.

3.  Recognizing verbs

• Verbs are the most important words in sentences.  They move the sentence along by showing action (glance, jump, think), occurrence (become, happen), or being (be, live).
• Helping (auxiliary) verbs combine with
• main verbs to form
• verb phrases.

Memorize the helping (auxiliary) verbs:     

·        forms of be (am, are, is, was, were, be, being, been)

·        can, could; shall, should; will, would

·        have, has, had

·        do, did, does

·        may, might, must

Practice:  Highlight the verbs or verb phrases in these sentences.

  1.  You must get some sleep tonight!

  2.  I could have danced all night.

  3.  She would prefer to take Italian rather than Spanish.

  4.  Terence should sing well in Sunday’s performance.

  5.  My future does look bright.

  6.  The faucet has been leaking all day.

  7.  Within the next few weeks, we will receive the test results.

  8.  One person can collect sap, a second might run the evaporator, and a third should finish the syrup.

  9.  A job at an animal hospital would be great.

10.  Be careful or you might accidentally mark the wrong verb.

4.  Recognizing nouns

• Nouns name things:

                  persons (aviator, child)

                  places (lake, library)

                  things (truck, suitcase) and

                  concepts (happiness, balance)

• Proper nouns name specific persons (Bill), places (Iowa), things (Supreme Court), or concepts (Buddhism).
• Collective nouns name groups:  team, flock, jury.
• Most nouns can be changed from singular (one) to plural (more than one) by adding

-s or –es:  horse, horses; kiss, kisses.

• Some nouns have irregular plural forms:  woman, women; alumnus, alumni; mouse, mice; deer, deer.
• Nouns can take a possessive form to show ownership.  A writer forms the possessive by adding an apostrophe plus –s to a singular noun or just an apostrophe to a plural noun:  the horse’s owner, the boys’ department.
• Nouns are often preceded by the articles a, an, and the.  Articles are also known as noun determiners.

Practice:  Highlight the nouns (including possessive forms) and underline the articles in these sentences.

  1.  The Puritans’ hopes were dashed when Charles II regained his father’s throne.

  2.  Nightlife begins in Georgetown even before the sun goes down.

  3.  Although plagiarism is dishonest and illegal, it does occur.

  4.  Thanksgiving is a grim season for turkeys.

  5.  Henderson’s story is a tale of theft and violation.

  6.  In the front row sat two people, a man with slightly graying hair and a young woman in jeans.

5.  Recognizing pronouns

• Pronouns function as nouns in sentences.  They often take the place of specific nouns, serving as short forms so that we do not have to repeat a noun that has already been mentioned. (“Bryan forgot his textbook” rather than “Bryan forgot Bryan’s textbook.)
• The specific noun that a pronoun replaces or refers to is called the antecedent of the pronoun.  (Cathy refused the invitation even though she wanted to go.)
• Pronouns fall into several categories:

                  Personal pronouns refer to specific persons or things.  Each can take several                          different forms depending on how it functions in a sentence.

                                    I, you, he, she, it, we, they

After the scouts made camp, they ran along the beach.  The seagulls chased them for three miles.

                        Reflexive pronouns refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they                               appear.  They end in –self or –selves.

                                    myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves,                                      themselves

                                    The seals sunned themselves on the warm rocks.

                        Intensive pronouns have the same form as reflexive pronouns.  They are used to               emphasize their antecedents.

                                    Bob decided to paint the apartment himself.

                        Indefinite pronouns do not refer to specific nouns, although they may refer to                                  identifiable persons or things.  They express the idea of a quantity (all, some, any,                 none) or an unspecified person or thing (somebody, anything).  Indefinite pronouns                   are one of the largest categories of pronouns; following is a partial list:

                        all, anybody, both, each, everything, few, most, none, one, some

                                    Somebody screamed when the lights went out.

                                    We gave them everything we had.

                        Demonstrative pronouns identify or point to specific nouns.

                                    this, that, these, those

                                    These are Peter’s books.

                        Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions.

                                    who, which, what

                                    Who will help me set up chairs for the meeting?

                        Relative pronouns introduce dependent clauses and “relate” the dependent clause to                   the rest of the sentence.

                                    who, which, that, what, whoever, whichever, whatever

                                    Maggie owns the car that is parked by the corner.

                        *The interrogative pronoun who and the relative pronouns who and whoever change             form depending on how they are used in a sentence.

                        Reciprocal pronouns refer to the individual parts of a plural antecedent.

                                    each other, one another

                                    The business failed because the partners distrusted each other.

Practice:  In these sentences, underline each pronoun once and each antecedent twice.

  1.  As identical twins, they really do understand each other.

  2.  She thanked everyone for helping.

  3.  The crowd that greeted the pope was the largest one I have ever seen.

  4.  Who knows better than Mark himself what he should do?

  5.  They have only themselves to blame.

  6.  People who are extremely fastidious often annoy those who are not.

6.  Recognizing adjectives

·        Adjectives modify (limit the meaning of) nouns and pronouns, usually by describing (what kind?), identifying (which one?), or quantifying (how many?) those words.

                                    The red Corvette ran off the road.  (describes or identifies)

                                    It was defective.  (describes)

                                    That Corvette needs to be repaired.  (identifies)

                                    We saw several other Corvettes race by.  (quantifies)

·        Most descriptive adjectives have other forms that are used to make comparisons:  small, smaller, smallest; foolish, more foolish, most foolish, less foolish, least foolish

                                    This year’s attendance was smaller than last year’s.

                                    This year’s attendance was the smallest in ten years.

·        Many of the pronouns can function as adjectives when they are followed by a noun.

                                    That is a dangerous intersection.  (pronoun)

                                    That intersection is dangerous.  (adjective)

·        Other kinds of adjectives that identify or quantify are articles (a, an, the) and numbers (three, sixty-five, five hundred).

·        Proper adjectives are adjectives formed from or related to proper nouns (Egyptian, Shakespearean).  Proper adjectives are capitalized.

Practice:  Highlight the adjectives in these sentences.  Be prepared to tell which words they modify and which questions they answer.

  1.  Inadvertently, the two insurance agents misquoted prices to their major clients.

  2.  Because time had grown perilously short, I quickly prepared the final draft.

  3.  Hilariously, the sly villain revealed himself at the end of the first act.

  4.  The somewhat shy author spoke reluctantly to six exuberant admirers.

  5.  I unhappily returned the sleek new car to its rightful owner.

  6.  The youngest dancer in the professional troupe performed a brilliant solo.

7.  Recognizing adverbs

• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or entire clauses.  Many adverbs have an

      -ly ending (happily, unfortunately), though some do not (always, never, very, well), and some       words that end in –ly are not adverbs but adjectives (friendly, lovely).  One of the most         common adverbs is not.

                  David and Rebecca recently visited Maine.  (modifies the verb visited)

                  They had an unexpectedly exciting trip.  (modifies the adjective exciting)

                  They very soon discovered lobster.  (modifies the adverb soon)

                  Frankly, they would have liked to stay another month.  (modifies the clause that makes up the rest of the sentence)

• Adverbs often answer the questions when? where? why?  how?  to what extent? (or how much?) [Go over above sentences.]
• Many adverbs, like adjectives, have different forms that are used in making comparisons:  forcefully, more forcefully, most forcefully, less forcefully, least forcefully.

                  The senator from Iowa spoke more forcefully than her opponent.

                  Of all the candidates, she speaks the most forcefully.

• Conjunctive adverbs modify an entire clause and express the connection in meaning between that clause and the preceding clause (or sentence).  Examples of conjunctive adverbs include however, furthermore, therefore, and likewise.

Practice:  In the sentences from the last practice, highlight the adverbs in another color.  Be prepared to tell which words they modify and which questions they answer.

More practice:  Expand each of the following sentences by adding appropriate adjectives and adverbs.  Delete the if necessary.

  1.  The veterinarians examined the patient.

  2.  A corporation can fire workers.

  3.  In the painting, a road curves between hills.

  4.  Candles gleamed on the tabletop.

  5.  Feminists have staged demonstrations against the movie.

8.  Recognizing prepositions

• Prepositions are important structural words that express relationships – in space, time, or other senses – between nouns or pronouns and other words in a sentence.

            We did not want to leave during the game.

            The contestants waited nervously for the announcement.

            Drive across the bridge, go down the avenue past three stoplights, and then turn left             before the gas station.

• Some common prepositions

            about              at                     down               near                since

            above             before             during             of                     through

            across                        behind            except             off                    toward

            after                below              for                    on                    under

            against           beneath          from                onto                 until

            along               beside                        in                     out                   up

            among            between         inside              over                 upon

            around            beyond           into                  past                 with

            as                    by                    like                  regarding       without

• Some compound prepositions (made up of more than one word)

            according to               except for                   instead of

            as well as                   in addition to              next to

            because of                 in front of                    out of

            by way of                    in place of                  with regard to

            due to                         in spite of

• A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition together with the noun or pronoun it connects to the rest of the sentence.

Practice:  Highlight the prepositions in these sentences.  Put parentheses around the prepositional phrases.

  1.  In the dim interior of the hut crouched an old man.

  2.  A gust of wind blew through the window, upsetting the vase on the table.

  3.  He ran swiftly through the brush, across the beach, and into the sea.

  4.  A few minutes past noon, the police arrived at the scene.

  5.  During our trip down the river, a rivalry developed between us.

  6.  The book, by Anne Morrow Lindbergh, describes the flight the Lindberghs made to the Orient by way of the Great Circle route.

9.  Recognizing conjunctions

• Conjunctions connect words or groups of words to each other.  There are four kinds of conjunctions:
• Coordinating conjunctions join equivalent structure – two or more nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, phrases, or clauses.  You can remember the seven coordinating conjunctions like this:

            for       and      nor      but       or        yet       so                    FANBOYS

                        A strong but warm breeze blew across the desert.

                        Please print or type the information on the application form.

                        Her arguments were easy to ridicule yet hard to refute.

                        He did not have much money, nor did he know how to get any.

• Correlative conjunctions join equal elements, and they come in pairs:

                  both . . . and               just as . . . so              not only . . . but also

                  either . . . or                neither . . . nor            whether . . . or

      Both Bechtel and Kaiser submitted bids on the project.

      Maisha not only sent a card but also visited me in the hospital.

• Subordinating conjunctions introduce adverb clauses and signal the relationship between the adverb clause and another clause, usually an independent clause.  For instance, in the following sentence the subordinating conjunction while signals a time relationship, letting us know that the two events in the sentence happened simultaneously:

                  Sweat ran down my face while I frantically searched for my keys.

Some common subordinating conjunctions

      after                because                     in order that                than                 when

      although          before                         once                            though where

      as                    even though               since   until                 unless             while

      as if                 if                                  so that             until

      Unless sales improve dramatically, the company will soon be bankrupt.

      My grandmother began traveling after she sold her house.

• Conjunctive adverbs connect independent clauses.  As their name suggests, conjunctive adverbs can be considered both adverbs and conjunctions because they modify the second clause in addition to connecting it to the preceding clause.  Like many other adverbs yet unlike conjunctions, they can be moved to different positions in a clause.  For example:

                  The cider tasted bitter; however, each of drank a tall glass of it.

                  The cider tasted bitter; each of us, however, drank a tall glass of it.

                  The cider tasted bitter.  Each of us drank a tall glass of it, however.

Some common conjunctive adverbs

                  also                             indeed                        now

                  anyway                       instead                       otherwise

                  besides                      likewise                      similarly

                  certainly                      meanwhile                  still

                  finally                           moreover                    then

                  furthermore                namely                        therefore

                  however                      nevertheless              thus

                  incidentally                 next                             undoubtedly

Independent clauses connected by a conjunctive adverb must be separated by a semicolon or a period, not just a comma.

                  I’d rather not do my homework this afternoon; instead, I think I’ll take a nap.

Practice:  Highlight all of the conjunctions in these sentences.  Be prepared to tell which kind each is and which words, phrases, or clauses it is connecting.

  1.  We used sleeping bags even though the cabin had sheets and blankets.

  2.  When we arrived at the pond, we saw many children playing there.

  3.  The shops along the waterfront were open, but business was slow.

  4.  The story was not only long but also dull.

  5.  Although I live in a big city, my neighborhood has enough trees and raccoons to make me feel as if I live in the suburbs.

  6.  Neither Henry nor Rachel could understand the story; therefore, they did not recommend it.

10.  Recognizing interjections

• Interjections express surprise or emotion:  oh, ouch, ah, hey.  Interjections often stand alone, as fragments.  Even when they are included in a sentence, they are not related grammatically to the rest of the sentence.  In writing, they are used mostly in dialogue.

      “Yes!  All right!” The fans screamed, jumping to their feet.

      The problem suggested, alas, no easy solution.

B.  Parts of a sentence

1.  Basic sentence patterns

• In order to use language correctly, we must know a word’s part of speech and its function in a sentence. 
• Sentences fall into one of five basic structural patterns:

      subject / verb (S / V)

                  Babies cry.     Babies sleep in cribs.

      subject / verb / subject complement  (S/ V/ SC)

                  Babies seem fragile.            Babies become toddlers too quickly.

      subject / verb / direct object  (S/ V/ DO)

                  Babies drink milk.     Babies require a great deal of care.

      subject / verb / indirect object / direct object  (S/ V/ IO /DO)

                  Babies give grandparents pleasure.    Grandmothers knit their grandchildren sweaters, hats, booties, and blankets.

      subject / verb / direct object / object complement  (S/ V/ DO /OC)

                  Babies make parents proud.   Babies keep people awake during the night.

Practice:  Identify the sentence pattern of each of these sentences.

  1.  Photography is Braden’s hobby.

  2.  Jonathan, however, took photos as a profession.

  3.  His work is stunningly beautiful.

  4.  I write people thank-you notes on his photo note cards.

  5.  Sometimes looking at Jon’s photos makes me sad.

  6.  A photo of Mt. Rainier on a windy day is one of my favorites.

  7.  I often went on photo-taking trips with Jonathan.

  8.  He offered engaged couples incredibly low prices for wedding photographs.

  9.  His work is his legacy to his family.

10.  People will benefit from his generosity for many years.

2.  The sentence diagram

• A diagram of the parts of a sentence shows how the parts are related to each other.
• Each sentence pattern can be represented in a simple diagram:

                  S / V                             _____Babies_____cry      

                  S/ V/ SC                                 Babies            seem              fragile__

                  S / V / DO                               Babies            drink                milk____

                  S / V/ IO / DO             Babies            give                 pleasure___

                  S / V / DO / OC                      Babies            make              parents           proud___

Practice:  Draw the basic sentence diagram for the sentences above.

3.  Recognizing subjects

• The simple subject of a sentence consists of one or more nouns or pronouns.
• The complete subject consists of the simple subject with all of its modifiers.

      Baseball is a summer game.

      Sailing over the fence, the ball crashed through Mr. Wilson’s window.

      Stadiums with real grass are more fun to play on than those with artificial turf.

      Those who sit in the bleachers have the most fun.

·        A compound subject contains two or more simple subjects joined with a coordinating conjunction or a correlative conjunction.

Baseball and softball developed from cricket.

Both baseball and softball developed from cricket.

·        In imperative sentences (requests or commands), the subject you is usually implied but not stated.

            (You) Keep your eye on the ball.

·        Sometimes the subject appears between the auxiliary verb and the main verb.

            Did Casey save the game?

            Never have I known greater disappointment.

·        There and here are never the subjects.

            Here are my parents.

            There is no answer to your question.

Practice:  Highlight the complete subject and underline the simple subject in each of these sentences.

  1.  The tall, powerful woman defiantly blocked the doorway.

  2.  Has the new elevator been installed yet?

  3.  The stories of Graham Greene probe the human psyche.

  4.  Here are some representative photographs from the collection.

  5.  The long, low, intricately carved table belonged to my aunt.

  6.  Some women worried about osteoporosis take calcium supplements.

  7.  Tired but happy, the overworked student fell into bed.

  8.  At the crest of the hill stood an ancient, gnarled oak tree with bare branches and twisted roots.

4.  Recognizing predicates

·        The simple predicate of a sentence is the main verb and any auxiliaries.

·        The complete predicate includes the simple predicate, any modifiers of the verb, and any objects or complements and their modifiers.

My roommate seems nice enough.

            Both of us are planning to major in history.

• A compound predicate contains two or more verbs that have the same subject.

      Charles shut the book, put it back on the shelf, and sighed.

      The Amish neither drive cars nor use electricity.

Practice:  Highlight the complete predicate and underline the simple predicate in each of these sentences.

  1.  He left the scene of the accident and tried to forget that it had happened.

  2.  Oil which is lighter than water rises to the surface.

  3.  Nice is a word with many meanings, some of which are contradictory.

  4.  The contractor testified that the house was completed and that the work had been done properly.

 5.  Taxicabs that are dirty are illegal in some cities.

  6.  December 7 1941 will never be forgotten.

  7.  Write the editor of the Atlantic at 8 Arlington Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02116.

  8.  Men who are bald are frequently the ones who are the most authoritative on the subject of baldness.

 9.  As a celestial goddess she regulated the course of the heavenly bodies and controlled the alternating seasons.

5.  Predicates with linking verbs

o       A linking verb links, or joins, a subject with a subject complement, a word or group of words that identifies or describes the subject.

·        If it identifies the subject, the complement is a noun or pronoun called the predicate nominative or predicate noun.

      Christine is a single mother.

·        If it describes the subject, the complement is an adjective called the predicate adjective.

      She is exhausted.

·        Linking verbs include

                  the forms of be (am, are, is, was, were, be, being, been)

I am a teacher.     I am hungry.      The two-year-old was being difficult.  He has been the state champion.

That cake looks delicious.     We felt tired.     The rotten fish smells disgusting.     It doesn’t taste very good, either.     Her voice sounded like sweet music to my ears.

He became a fisherman.            She seems nice.        

Practice:  Highlight the linking verbs in these sentences, and underline the subjective complements.  Label the complements PN for predicate nominatives or PA predicate adjectives.

  1.  William Shakespeare was the greatest playwright of all time.

  2.  His works have become famous all over the world.

  3.  Hamlet felt confused and distraught when his uncle married his mother.

  4.  The drops of liquid in the vial in Romeo’s hand smelled poisonous to Juliet.

  5.  Kate had been a “shrew” before the arrival of a new man in town.

  6.  She later grew sweeter and more compliant.

  7.  Shakespeare’s language sound archaic to some modern readers.

  8.  His themes, however, remain timeless.

  9.  You will become an expert reader of Elizabethan English.

6.  Predicates with direct objects

·        If a verb is not a linking verb, it is either transitive or intransitive.

·        A transitive verb expresses action that is directed toward a noun or pronoun, called the direct object of the verb.  A direct object tells what or who receives the action of the verb.  It completes the thought begun by the subject and the verb.

                  I will analyze three poems.

I = subject will analyze = verb         poems tells what I will analyze

·        A direct object may be followed by an object complement, a word or group of words that describes or identifies the direct object.  Object complements may be adjectives or nouns.

                  I consider Marianne Moore’s poetry exquisite

                  Her poems and personality made Moore a celebrity.

Practice:  Underline the simple subject once and the simple predicate (complete verb) twice.  Highlight direct objects and object complements, and label them DO and/or OC.

  1.  The U.S. Constitution made us a nation.

  2.  One rainy day Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy played hide-and-seek.

  3.  Lucy unexpectedly found herself in a strange land called Narnia.

  4.  There she met a faun.

  5.  They shared a cup of tea and some conversation.

  6.  Lucy discovered the truth about the White Witch.

  7.  She found the whole adventure rather exciting.

  8.  Back home, she described her afternoon to her siblings.

  9.  They didn’t believe her story.

10.  The professor, however, found it quite credible.

7.  Predicates with indirect objects

·        A transitive verb may also be followed by an indirect object, which tells to whom or what, or for whom or what, the verb’s action is done.  In a way, the indirect object is the recipient of the direct object.

·        The indirect object always comes before the direct object in a sentence.  It is never preceded by a preposition.

·        To find the indirect object, check to see if the sentence contains a direct object.  Then ask who or what received the direct object.

                  I gave the teacher the answer to her question.

                  She sent her congressman a letter.

Practice:  Underline the simple subjects once and the simple predicates twice.  Label direct objects DO and indirect objects IO.

  1.  Edmund also visited Narnia through the wardrobe.

  2.  He even met the White Witch in person.

  3.  She gave him some Turkish Delight.

  4.  Edmund wanted more.

  5.  He told Peter and Susan a lie about his experience.

  6.  The professor wished them good luck.

  7.  Together the four children discovered the truth.

  8.  The Witch had sent Mr. Tumnus a terrible punishment.

8.  Predicates with intransitive verbs.

·        Not all action verbs direct their action toward objects.

·        A verb that expresses action that is not directed toward an object is called an intransitive verb. 

                  The Mariners persevered to the end.

                  Their fans watched helplessly.

·        Some action verbs can be only transitive or only intransitive, but most can be used both ways – with or without a direct object.

                  Susie answered the question.

                  Susie answered incorrectly.

Practice:  Underline the simple subjects once and the simple predicates twice.  Mark each verb T for transitive or I for intransitive.

  1.  This summer we traveled to Ashland, Oregon.

  2.  There we attended two plays by William Shakespeare.

  3.  The Oregon Shakespeare Festival attracts visitors from around the world every year.

  4.  The season begins in February and lasts through October.

  5.  The actors perform fourteen plays in three theaters.

  6.  A single actor usually plays several different roles in one season.

  7.  We watched The Taming of the Shrew and Romeo and Juliet this year.

  8.  A thunderstorm nearly brought the first play to a halt.

  9.  However, the worst of the storm occurred during the intermission.

10.  The lighting provided the audience extra entertainment.